by Giovanni Giacalone
Islamism and pro-Pal propaganda in Peru
When thinking about the infiltration of Islamic extremism in Latin America and anti-Israel activity, it easily comes to mind the attacks of 1992 and 1994 in Buenos Aires perpetrated by the Iranian regime and Hezbollah against the Israeli embassy and the Argentine Israelite Mutual Association (AMIA).
On March 17th 1992, a truck filled with explosives crashed against the front side of the Israeli Embassy in Buenos Aires, killing 29 and wounding over 240 people; both, Hezbollah and the Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility. On July 18th of 1994, a Hezbollah suicide bomber drove a car-bomb against the Jewish Community Center building in Buenos Aires, killing 85 and injuring over 300.
Another constant reference, when dealing with Islamists in Latin America, is the presence and spread of Hezbollah in Venezuela where the Tehran regime maintains solid ties with the Bolivarian leadership. Or again, to the “Triple Frontera” between Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay and specifically in Ciudad del Este, a lawless zone in Paraguayan territory that over time became a stronghold of Hezbollah but also with a strong presence of Hamas and al-Qaeda.
Indeed, Islamist extremism has been present in Latin America for around four decades, with a growing activity that is facilitated by a series of factors such as widespread corruption, Islamist-friendly governments like the ones belonging to the ALBA group, the possibility of exploiting illicit trafficking, especially drugs, money laundering, and the lack of proper counter-terror laws. Most Latin American legislation does not recognize Islamic terrorist groups, which becomes a weakness in a globalized world that fights to eradicate them.
There are the numerous links between Hezbollah and the well-known far-left terrorist groups such as the Colombian FARC and more recently also with Brazilian criminal organizations dedicated to drug trafficking such as CV and PCC.
However, very little has been said about the infiltration of Islamism in Peru and its connection to pro-Palestinian and anti-Israel propaganda.
Peru has mostly been referred to in relation to the extremely violent waves of terrorism perpetrated by far-left groups such as Sendero Luminoso and Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru (MRTA) from the 1980s to the early 2000s.
However, the phenomenon of Islamic extremism and terrorism is present and active in Peru both, in large cities such as the capital, Lima, and remote but strategic areas in the “selva” of the north-east, and in the far south, near the borders with Chile and Bolivia. Just like in the United States and Europe, the alliance between Islamists and far-left pro-Palestinians is present and active. The following document will expose some of the pro-Palestinian and anti-Israel activities carried out by various Islamic organizations active in Peru. The brief report will hopefully be useful as a starting point for further research.
- From the Tabligh to the pro-Pals: the Islamist infiltration in the jungle and the Iquitos Islamic Center
Iquitos is a city of approximately 377,000 people in north-eastern Peru; accessible only by river and air, it has strategic importance due to its location in the Great Plains of the Amazon Basin, fed by the Amazon, Itaya and Nanay rivers, which makes it a main fluvial gateway to the nearby Brazilian and Colombian borders. Iquitos is also part of the so-called “Amazonian Trapezoid”, the tri-border area where Brazil, Colombia and Peru meet, which has been indicated by InsightCrime as a key territory for drug production and trafficking as well as for smuggling activities. This is due not only to its specific location, a point of convergence between two of the principal cocaine producer countries, Colombia and Peru, and the region’s biggest consumer market, Brazil, which is also a major drug trans-shipment point but also because of the lack of border control. InsightCrime also emphasized how the area is isolated by jungle terrain, which has attracted the presence of coca cultivation.[1]
Additionally, a U.S. Department of State’s 2024 report on Peru warned against the human trafficking activity in the region:
“In the Loreto region, criminal groups facilitate transportation of foreign tourists by boat to remote locations where traffickers exploit women and children in sex trafficking in venues on the Amazon River. Traffickers exploit Peruvian and foreign adults and children in forced labor in the country, principally in illegal and legal gold mining and related activities, logging, agriculture, brick-making, unregistered factories, counterfeit operations, organized street begging, and domestic service. Traffickers compel victims into forced labor through deceptive recruitment, debt-based coercion, isolation and restricted freedom of movement, withholding of or non-payment of wages, and threats and use of physical violence. Traffickers subject children to forced labor in begging, street vending, domestic service, cocaine production and transportation, and other criminal activities.”[2]
Due to the specific complexity of this far-off and isolated area, the fervent activity of a small group of Tablighi Jamaat missionaries could not go unnoticed, as exposed by Brazil-based Italian investigative journalist Maria Zuppello in her book “Il Jihad ai Tropici” (Jihad at the Tropics) where she drew attention to the constant presence of Tabligh preachers and the ferment involving their two mosques, the Nur ul-Islam in Iquitos and a smaller one, al-Ansar, in San Jose de Lupuna: a few shacks in the middle of the jungle less than 5km west of Iquitos.[3]
Both centers have a Facebook page where they depict their missionary activity which clearly aims to convert the local native population, as emerged in a video published on YouTube in December of 2021, where three Tabligh activists are making locals, many of whom women and minors, repeat the Shahada (the Muslim declaration of faith).
The presence of the Tablighi preachers, mostly from Indonesia, has been documented up until mid-2023 and they seem to have a major role in the diffusion of Islamic ideology within the Iquitos Muslim community in both, the Iquitos and the Lupuna Islamic centers. [4]
Up to date, the Islamic center of Iquitos – Masjid al-Faleh, runs two TV channel named “al-Shajara” (The Tree) and Terra TV.
The al-Shajara Facebook page states:
“Founded by the Islamic Center of Iquitos, it is the spokesperson for the Muslim Community. It is supported by its members to the point of being a subscription channel. We do not pretend to be, we are an alternative channel since we do not follow any government guidelines”. [5]
The Terra TV Facebook page states:
“We are a mean for disseminating news and documentaries that people need to know about”. [6]
Both TV channel’s Facebook pages indicate the same referent as contact (name, email and phone number), and that is Gerges Bocanegra Picon, a native of the Loreto-Lupuna area and a convert to Islam who now manages the Islamic Center of Iquitos.
On his Facebook account, he is indicated as “Emir of the Islamic Center of Iquitos” and as “Emir Fazlullah”. [7]
Bocanegra and his Islamic Center posted on several occasions, before and after October 7th 2023, photos and comments in support of the Palestinian cause, such as the one posted on January 2nd, 2025, with the photo of Ahed Tamimi and the comment “We never forget the Palestinian brothers. Allahu Akbar”.
In the Islamic Center of Iquitos’ Facebook page there is also a reference to the recommendations provided by someone indicated as “Sheikh Ahmad of the Magdalena mosque”, who “helped the Iquitos group achieve various objectives”.
- Asociacion Islamica de Peru
The sheikh cited by the Islamic Center of Iquitos is none other than Sheikh Ahmad Osman Ali Kassem, imam of the Magdalena del Mar Mosque/Asociacion Islamica de Peru, located in Lima and founded in 1986 by the Palestinian diaspora. [8] [9]
In February 2023, Sheikh Ahmad was photographed once again in Iquitos for “important coordination with sheikhs from all over Peru”, as indicated in the Centro Islamico de Iquitos Facebook account.
Another photo from November 2020 shows Sheikh Ahmed in Iquito’s Islamic Center.
These links show interconnections between the rapidly growing Islamic center of Iquitos and the Magdalena Islamic Center in Peru’s capital, Lima, which seems to be the main HQ of Sunni Islamic activity in Peru.
The AIP’s Turkish connection
In February of 2021, the group’s Facebook page, Asociacion Islamica de Peru (A.I.P.), advertised the Imam Hatip High School Scholarship Program sponsored by the Turkish Diyanet (the Directorate of Religious Affairs) which, during the rule of Turkish President Tayyip Erdogan, has become a major tool for the spread of the Muslim Brotherhood ideology.
In June of 2018, for Ramadan, C.I.P. released more pictures, this time with the banner “TIKA, Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency/Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry” and boxes of donations. It seems that Turkey is very generous with the Islamic Community of Peru during Ramadan. [10] [11] [12]
In May of 2019, the Comunidad Islamica de Peru Facebook page shared a series of photos during the Ramadan preparations with a background banner showing the Turkish and the Peruvian flags and the writing “IHH Insani Yardim Vakfi, Ramzan 2019”.[13] IHH is a notorious Turkish conservative NGO that has been designated as a terrorist organization by Israel since 2012 and has been investigated by European prosecutors as a key logistical supporter of Al Qaeda.[14] IHH also made international headlines in 2010 for sending a three-ship flotilla to break the Gaza blockade and was accused by British daily The Times in 2012 of shipping arms to Syria through its contacts with the Muslim Brotherhood.[15] In March of 2016, Russia’s UN Ambassador Vitaly Churkin sent a letter to the UN Security Council warning that three Turkish humanitarian organizations (NGOs) sent weapons and supplies to jihadists in Syria on behalf of Turkey’s MIT intelligence agency; among them was the IHH.[16]
During Ramadan 2024, the relationship with TIKA was still ongoing, as emerged from the images published on Facebook:
The same thing can be stated regarding the link to IHH, as images show:
Asociacion Islamica de Peru’s pro-Palestinian online activity
On October 9th, 2023, just two days after the massacre perpetrated by Hamas in southern Israel, the Asociacion Islamica de Peru published a post against Israel:
“There are some people who, either because of their ignorance of history or because of their religious teachings, staunchly defend the Israeli occupation of Palestine. They even defend its incursions, massacres, murders of children, expulsions of families from their homes and have even gone so far as to say that Israel can do whatever it wants because it is the people “chosen by God” but from any perspective it is an illegal invasion and occupation, seizing land that does not belong to it at all”. [23]
The post consequently provides some alleged historical/Biblical content to justify the previous statement. (APPENDIX [24] )
On October 10th, 2023, the Asociacion Islamica de Peru published another post with the following statement:
“How sad it is to see civilians and innocent people killed and injured. However, all this is the result of the illegal occupation of a territory, the theft of homes and lives, systematic cruelty towards the civilian population, apartheid and the clearly inhuman. Free Palestine!” [25]
On the same day, the account also published infographic material originating from the “Palestinian Embassy in Peru” comparing Palestinian deaths to Israeli deaths. [26]
More pro-Palestinian propaganda posted by the Asociacion Islamica de Peru:
In February of 2020, much before the 10/7/23 massacre, Asociacion Islamica de Peru shared a post to promote the demonstration organized by the Palestinian Federation of Peru and the Peruvian Committee for Solidarity with the Palestinian People, outside the US Embassy, against the upcoming Abraham Accords. [30]
The Committe, known as Comité Peruano De Solidaridad con Palestina, is a far-left formation strongly involved in anti-Israeli activism. In November 2024, the Committee’s Facebook account shared a post advertising a petition in support of the students of the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Bellas Artes de Peru (UNABAP) who denounced the institute’s collaboration with the Israeli Embassy.[31]
The petition statement is signed by Nemiye Perez Mardini, a former UNABAP student and a member of the Palestinian diaspora in Peru. On her Facebook account, Mardini displays an image of the Palestinian flag and the writing “Make Israel Palestine again”, posted just four days after the October 7th massacre.
Mardini also took part in anti-Fujimori demonstrations back in 2014 while residing in Paris, France.
Figure 1 Nemiye Perez Mardini in 2021
- Tacna’s Islamic Center
Located in the city of Tacna, a city of around 300,000 inhabitants, located only 40 km from the border with Chile and approximately 100 km from Bolivia, the Bad ul-Islam Mosque was founded in 2000 with funds originating from used cars businessmen who reached the area around the year 1995. [32]
The imam of the Mosque, Mahmoud Ali Tehrani, the son of Iranian immigrants, he embraced Sunni Islam and was previously imam at the As Salam Mosque in La Paz, Bolivia and at the Islamic Community of Uruguay. [33]
Figure 2 Ali Tehrani in 2024
Ali Tehrani also shared anti-Israeli and pro-Palestinian content on his Facebook account:
A photo taken in 2024 on Ruta Tacna/Panamericana Sur portraying Tehrani and other individuals flying a Palestinian flag
- Edwar Husain Quiroga Vargas, the Ethnocacerist Movement and Iranian propaganda
Joys Edwar “Husain” Quiroga Vargas, a convert to Shia Islam and a disciple of Mohsen Rabbani (a major figure in Iran’s terror activities in Latin America, including the Amia bombing), is the founder of the non-profit organization “Inkarri Islam”, also known as “Centro Islamico en el Peru (Peru Islamic Center), which aims to unify Shia Islam with concepts and principles of the Andean culture. [36]
Figure 3 Quiroga Vargas
Quiroga Vargas also claimed to be a follower of ALBA (Alianza Bolivariana) and Ethnocacerism, a far-left movement strongly present in the Apurimac region that seeks to establish a dictatorship of the proletariat led by the country’s native communities and is represented in electoral politics by the Union for Peru Party and other smaller parties. The ideology is also followed by Peruvian militant groups such as the Plurinational Association of Tahuantinsuyo Reservists and Ejercito de Reservistas Andino Amazonico.
The name “Ethnocacerism” is related to Andrés Avelino Caceres, a Peruvian national hero who led the resistance against Chile during the War of the Pacific (1879-1883).
Quiroga Vargas, who also defines himself as anti-Zionist and an environmentalist, also founded the Kechwa Apurimac Integration Movement and was its leader from 2006 to 2010. He also ran as a candidate of the Ethnocacerist Movement for the regional presidency of Apurimac in 2010.
In 2017, he organized the First National Congress for the Decolonization of Peru and Tahuantinsuyo where he made a “call for the union of the social forces committed to seizing and recovering the sovereignty and self-determination of the peoples of Peru and during the Las Bambas protests, he took the lead after the arrest of protest leader Gregorio Rojas, calling for a civic armed union against the colonizing companies.
During the 2021 Peruvian presidential election, he endorsed the candidacy of far-left politician Pedro Castillo of Free Peru, whom he considers his “brother in struggle”. [38]
Facing imminent impeachment proceedings, on December 7th, 2022, Castillo attempted to illegally dissolve Congress and rule by decree, before being forcibly removed from office by the military and arrested.[39]
Inkarri Islam has been accused of being a tool of Hezbollah on several occasions and, as explained by Emanuel Ottolenghi, Iran and Hezbollah expert at think tank Foundation for Defense of Democracies, “it perfectly encapsulates the Iranian strategy of fusing traditional indigenous teachings with revolutionary Shiite Islam. By juxtaposing similar narratives, like Shiite Muslims’ belief in the return of the Mahdi, with indigenous myths such as the return of the Inca, Quiroga built his cultural center a facade of legitimacy while pursuing a radical agenda on Iran’s behalf,”. [40]
In 2016, congresswoman Luciana León accused Inkarri Islam of being a representative of Hezbollah in Peru, in addition to working with the remnants of the Shining Path to destabilize the south of the country.[41]
In a 2016 report on Jihadism in Latin America by expert Joseph M. Humire, Inkarri Islam leader Quiroga Vargas is indicated as “Iran’s point man in Peru”. According to the information acquired by Humire, Vargas’ relationship with the Iranian regime began in 2009 while attending an ALBA climate change conference in Bolivia. The report also explained that Inkarri Islam was active in proselytizing, indoctrinating, and converting Peruvians with the help of the Ethnocacerista movement and particularly through the work of their paramilitary arm, the Association of Reservists from Tahuantinsuyo (Asociación Plurinacional de Reservists del Tahuantinsuyo ASPRET), led by Eddy “Sacha” Villaroel Medina, Quiroga’s close colleague. In addition, according to the report, more Shia Islamic centers quickly emerged in Cuzco, Puno, Arequipa and. Lima (Imam Mahdi Center), all of them active in promoting the Iranian Khomeinist ideology throughout Peru.[42]
However, in an April 2020 interview for the Muslim website al-Mostabserin, Quiroga Vargas denied the presence of Shia Islamic and cultural centers in Peru:
“At present, we don’t have an Islamic Center; because the new administration took away our budget, before there was one in Lima and another in Abancay, the one in Lima was closed first and now Abancay also was closed, because there was a debt, I had to take out a loan and pay the debt, it was already paid and I retired from that center”.[43]
In May 2023, Quiroga Vargas was arrested by the National Police of Peru in the Chacrapata sector of Andahuaylas and charged with illegal possession of weapons. The head of the police region of Andahuaylas and Chincheros, Willy Vargas, specified that the anti-mining leader was wanted for transporting more than 19 thousand cartridges of dynamite in the Cuzco region.
Quiroga Vargas was accused by the police of integrating terrorist groups in the province and being a member of the Bolivarian High Council committee and being a political and ideological collaborator.[44]
The report showed four different situations in different areas of Peru, where Islamic activity is present and active, albeit with different dynamics and circumstances. It is undeniable that all the entities cited are active in pro-Palestinian activities, an aspect that unites them, regardless of the different degrees of involvement and activity.
Despite the different origins of the Islamic organizations described above, some born from Tablighi missionary activity, others from Arab and Pakistani diaspora initiatives or from Iranian engagement, they all share the need to express pro-Palestinian and anti-Israeli activism.
This situation can evolve in a problematic outcome, especially after October 7th, 2023, with anti-Israel demonstrations and anti-Semitic attacks increasing globally. Online narratives, often calling for the annihilation of the State of Israel (“From the river to the sea Palestine will be free”; “Make Israel Palestine again”) can attract violent actors, inspired by such content, and willing to take action against Jewish and Israeli targets in Latin America.
REFERENCES
[1] Daniela Castro, “90% of Brazilian Town Lives off Drug Trafficking: Authorities”, Insightcrime, September 19th 2013; https://insightcrime.org/news/brief/90-of-brazilian-town-lives-off-drug-trafficking-authorities/
[2] 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report: Peru, US State Department, 2024; https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-trafficking-in-persons-report/peru/#:~:text=In%20the%20Loreto%20region%2C%20criminal,venues%20on%20the%20Amazon%20River.
[3] Maria Zuppello, Il Jihad ai Tropici. Il patto tra terrorismo islamico e crimine organizzato in America Latina, (Paese Edizioni. Roma, 2019), pp. 160-161.
[4] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=601935135314546&set=pb.100064941930031.-2207520000&type=3
[5] https://www.facebook.com/masjidalfaleh
[6] https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100070135547564
[7] https://www.facebook.com/gerges.bocanegra.picon/
[8] https://www.facebook.com/AsociacionIslamicadelPeru
[9] Maria Zuppello, Il Jihad ai Tropici. Il patto tra terrorismo islamico e crimine organizzato in America Latina, (Paese Edizioni. Roma, 2019), p. 161.
[10] https://www.facebook.com/AsociacionIslamicadelPeru/photos/656988994638184
[11] https://www.facebook.com/AsociacionIslamicadelPeru/photos/658924451111305
[13] https://www.facebook.com/AsociacionIslamicadelPeru/photos/886912844979130
[14] Ahmet Yayla, “IHH: The Nonprofit Face of Jihadism. An In-Depth Review”, International Institute for Counter-Terrorism- Herzliya, May 16th 2019; https://www.ict.org.il/Article/2397/IHH#gsc.tab=0
[15] Sheera Frenkel, “Brotherhood ‘buying influence with arms”, The Times, September 14th 2012; https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/brotherhood-buying-influence-with-arms-lt9nc0qnkh3
[16] “Russia claims Turkish NGOs are ‘main supplier’ of extremists in Syria”, DW, April 1st 2016; https://www.dw.com/en/russia-claims-turkish-ngos-are-main-supplier-of-extremists-in-syria/a-19159685
[17] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=801721725327936&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[18] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=801878615312247&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[19] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=795929712573804&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[20] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=795929682573807&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[21] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=795929545907154&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[22] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=795929512573824&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[23] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=700555015444608&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[24] * The land was promised by God to the 12 tribes of Israel: Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Reuben, Levi, Joseph, Judah, Dan, Benjamin, Simeon, Zebulun and Izachar.
But those who occupy the state of Israel are only the tribe of Judah, hence Jews, and hence the difference between Israelite and Israelite.
* According to the Bible, the kingdom called Israel (uniting the 12 tribes) only lasted 80-100 years during the reigns of Saul, David and Solomon. Afterwards it was definitively divided in 924 BC into 2 rival kingdoms: Israel in the north with its capital in Samaria and Judah in the South with its capital in Jerusalem.
* Northern Israel was destroyed by Shalmaneser IV in 726 BC. and his successor Sargon II takes captive part of the population of the northern kingdom but not all of it.
* The southern kingdom of Judah is left with only the tribe of Judah and part of the tribe of Benjamin.
* In 586 BC Babylon conquers Judah and takes captive part of the population (but not all of it)
* 70 years later Cyrus of Persia conquers Babylon and lets the Jews return to Judah.
* The Jews are conquered by the Macedonian empire.
* The Maccabees manage to free themselves from the Greco-Syrian yoke for a few years but are then dominated by Rome.
* The area is divided into: Galilee, Samaria, Judea and Idumea. The tretrarchy of Herod the Great. This area had an approximate population of 2.5 million inhabitants but more or less the same number lived throughout the Roman Empire in important communities in Alexandria, Asia Minor, Greece, Rome and Gaul. (this is the time of the historical Jesus)
* In 66 AD these cities rise up against Rome. 4 years later the temple of Jerusalem is destroyed and part of the population is killed, sold into slavery and exiled (but not all)
* In 135 AD another revolution takes place, that of Bar Kohba (proof that not all Jews were deported) and the emperor Hadrian crushes the revolution and returns the area to its old name: “Philistia” which in Latin is “Palestine” almost 2000 years ago.
* Those who now live in Palestine are the remaining tribes of Israel who mixed with the neighboring peoples (Amorites, Jebusites, Ammonites, Hittites, Philistines, Canaanites, Edomites, Perizzites, etc. (Judges 3:5-6: So the children of Israel lived among the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites.
6 And they took their daughters to be wives, and gave their daughters to their sons, and served their gods).
* This whole area is conquered in the 7th century by Omar Ibn Jattab, so the local people change their religion to Islam and their language from Aramaic to Arabic.
In conclusion the foreign Jews (from a single tribe and mixed with Europeans) fight with their local brothers, descendants also of Isaac and Jacob (who mixed with their neighbors and with Arabs, Samaritans, Edomites, Greeks). etc)
These lost tribes are assimilated into the Palestinian people.
Now, for the “promised” land, the Israelites (who are not the Israelites of the 12 tribes promise) kill and expel their brothers from their homes, just as they were mistreated by Assyria, Babylon, Greece, Rome and Europe.
[25] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=700655022101274&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[26] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=701062045393905&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[27] https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=975252474641526&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000
[28] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=708092848024158&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[29] https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=975252474641526&set=pb.100064703467808.-2207520000&type=3
[30] https://www.facebook.com/AsociacionIslamicadelPeru/photos/1099282033742209
[31] https://www.facebook.com/photo?fbid=10160310844626831&set=pcb.10160310845226831
[32] Maria Zuppello, Il Jihad ai Tropici. Il patto tra terrorismo islamico e crimine organizzato in America Latina, (Paese Edizioni. Roma, 2019), p. 161.
[33] Ibidem
[34] https://www.facebook.com/photo?fbid=10232567818877237&set=a.3355549446831
[35] https://www.facebook.com/stories/1074191973502928/?source=profile_highlight
[36] https://www.ifmat.org/09/02/mohsen-rabbani/
[37] https://al-mostabserin.com/english/1269
[38] Florencia Montaruli, “El líder de Hezbollah en Perú y sus vínculos con el nuevo presidente de Perú”, Iraniwire, June 10. 2021; https://iranwire.com/es/features-5/69801/?ref=specials .
[39] Peru: Pedro Castillo detained by police after coup attempt, Mercopress, December 7th, 2021; https://en.mercopress.com/2022/12/07/peru-pedro-castillo-detained-by-police-after-coup-attempt .
[40] Maria Zuppello, “The Threat of Islamic Radicalism in Latin America”, Dialogo Americas, October 21, 2024; https://dialogo-americas.com/articles/the-threat-of-islamic-radicalism-in-latin-america/
[41] https://utero.pe/2016/10/19/estos-son-los-peruanos-del-hezbolla-pero-dan-menos-miedo-que-pelicula-peruana-de-terror/
[42] Joseph M. Humire, “After Nusman: How the death of the prosecutor revealed Iran’s growing influence in the Americas”, (Center for a Secure Free Society, 2016), pp. 48-49.
[43] Edwar Quiroga Vargas (Husain) member of Shia community and the Director of the Islamic Center of Peru, Al-Mostabserin, April 14, 2020; https://al-mostabserin.com/english/1269 .
[44] “Apurímac: Capturan a dirigente en Andahuaylas por tenencia ilegal de armas”, Canal N, May 3, 2023; https://canaln.pe/peru/apurimac-capturan-dirigente-andahuaylas-tenencia-ilegal-armas-n461488
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